The first Months of the Resistenza
Author: Milan Spindler
On 12 September 1943, Benito Mussolini was freed from Italian custody. Just days later, on 23 September, with German support, he proclaimed the establishment of the Repubblica Sociale Italiana (RSI) as a fascist satellite state. The first resistance groups now faced two adversaries: the German occupying forces and the fascist forces of the RSI. With a decree issued on 9 November 1943, the RSI attempted to conscript young men into its fascist army. For many, this became a reason to flee into the mountains, where they joined the first partisan units. In this way, conscription unintentionally contributed to strengthening the resistance, which offered these men refuge, material support, and the opportunity to engage in armed struggle.
However, due to the inexperience of many newcomers, numerous arrests occurred and many groups were broken up. Without support from the Allies or the royal government in southern Italy, both of which initially viewed the partisan struggle with scepticism, these groups were forced to rely almost entirely on their own resources during the winter of 1943/44. Poor supply and inadequate armament, combined with issues of discipline and the hope of an early return home, led to the dissolution of many units after only a short time.
A first spontaneous urban uprising against the occupiers took place at the end of September 1943 in Naples. The Quattro Giornate di Napoli (Four Days of Naples), from 27 to 30 September 1943, became a symbolically charged moment in the history of the resistance. The local population rose up against deportations for forced labour and the systematic destruction of industrial sites. The Wehrmacht was unprepared for the revolt and was forced to withdraw from the city on 1 October.
Between 14 and 16 November 1943, the first clashes between German troops and the first groups of partisans also took place in northern Italy around Monte San Martino, in the province of Varese, on Lage Maggiore. After 8 September, members of the Italian armed forces had retreated and entrenched themselves in that area under the command of Carlo Croce. In November 1943, the German armed forces, together with Italian collaborators, began the siege and round-up of the area. The air force was also deployed against the outnumbered partisans. Some of them managed to escape to Switzerland, while others were captured and some were shot. The chapel on Monte San Martino, from which it takes its name, was blown up at the end of the fighting.
The partisan groups of autumn 1943 reflected the political diversity of the Resistenza: while some pursued a radical break with the fascist past, others sought national reconciliation and a return to pre-war conditions. Disagreement over Italy’s future, the monarchy, and the southern government also shaped the CLN. However, these differences were initially subordinated to the shared goal of armed resistance.
During the difficult winter of 1943/44, these tensions did not yet surface openly. Despite all adversity, the organisation and resilience of the partisan groups began to solidify. The slow Allied advance and the onset of winter allowed the occupying forces to take more targeted action against the partisans. Yet thanks to their mobility and close integration with the local population, many groups evaded German sweep operations and survived the winter, a decisive step towards the subsequent growth of the Resistenza in spring 1944.