Author: Milan Spindler

Despite enduring a harsh winter of combing operations and scarce resources, the Resistenza recovered early in 1945. Recruits, mainly young men who had refused fascist military service, swelled the ranks, morale was buoyed by Radio London, and popular support continued to grow. Allied arms shipments surged: between February and April 1945, the partisan forces received more supplies than in the preceding fifteen months combined.

The partisans pursued a clear strategic ambition: advance into the Po Valley and catalyse a general uprising in northern cities. However, they were cautious not to act prematurely without adequate preparation and Allied support, which could have led to futile confrontations with stronger German formations. Their aim was not merely to follow Allied forces, but to seize cities ahead of them, demonstrating both military capability and political legitimacy. Capturing and detaining as many German soldiers as possible formed part of this strategy. Allied priorities focused on safeguarding critical industrial and energy infrastructures such as hydroelectric facilities to preserve economic stability and ensure a smooth transition to peacetime governance. Demobilising the partisan bands quickly and orderly was also a key objective. Already in December 1944, Allied directives had emphasised either integrating partisans into the regular army or disarming them, particularly to prevent internal conflict. Communist partisan formations were particularly targeted for eventual control by the postwar government. Without this demobilisation, the Allies believed stable rule in Italy was untenable, especially given the heightened tensions in Greece. In this context, the final Allied offensive commenced on 4–5 April 1945, with coordinated partisan activities in Liguria, Emilia‑Romagna, and Piedmont. On 21 April, partisans joined in the liberation of Bologna, followed by Modena two days later. The nationwide uprising unfolded on 25 April 1945, with Milan liberated by the Resistenza ahead of Allied arrival. By 29 April, Piacenza had fallen; by 30 April, Treviso, Belluno, and Trieste were liberated. Benito Mussolini was captured fleeing by partisans on 28 April and executed. With the partial surrender of the Wehrmacht in Italy on 2 May 1945, the strategic objectives of both the Allies and the Resistenza were largely achieved, with comparatively limited destruction. However, liberation unleashed waves of vengeance in northern Italy: between 10,000 and 12,000 RSI members, including police, military personnel, and officials, were executed by partisans. Women accused of collaboration were publicly humiliated, for instance by having their heads shaved.

Special tribunals issued around 500 death sentences, of which approximately 90 were carried out. These actions deepened the schism between the partisan-dominated north and the south, where many fascist officials remained in power well after spring 1945. In these final weeks, the quasi-civil war nature of the conflict from 1943 to 1945 became unmistakably clear.