From Entry into War to Crisis: Italy between Alliance Loyalty and Internal Collapse (1940–1943)

Author: Milan Spindler

After the downfall of Fascism, demonstrators drag a bust of Benito Mussolini through the streets of Turin, July 1943 © Istituto storico della Resistenza Novara, 1488 Torino luglio 43

In June 1940, Italy entered the Second World War on the side of the German Reich. However, it soon became clear that the country was neither militarily nor economically prepared for a conflict of this scale. The armed forces quickly encountered difficulties and became increasingly reliant on German support to avoid major defeats. This military weakness led to growing dependence on the Axis partner, who began exerting more influence over Italian strategic decisions. A key turning point came with the defeat of the ARMIR (Armata Italiana in Russia, Italian Army in Russia) during the winter of 1942/43. The costly retreat from the Eastern Front resulted in thousands of deaths and tens of thousands of soldiers being taken prisoner. The survivors returned home exhausted and deeply traumatised, only to be kept isolated in an effort to conceal the full scale of the catastrophe from the Italian public. 

In North Africa, too, Italian forces, after joint operations with the Wehrmacht, were forced to surrender to the Allies. The capitulation of Axis forces in Tunisia on 13 May 1943 deepened Italy’s military crisis and further increased its dependence on Germany.

At the same time, the domestic situation deteriorated. Food shortages, inflation, and widespread rationing of basic goods steadily eroded public support for the Fascist regime. Allied bombing raids on major cities and harsh working conditions in the armaments sector exacerbated public dissatisfaction. Spontaneous walkouts and political strikes in spring 1943, particularly in the industrial centres of northern Italy, made clear that the social consensus underpinning Fascism was disintegrating.Disillusionment with Mussolini also grew within elite circles. Sections of the civil service, diplomatic corps, and military leadership began to question the continuation of the war. King Vittorio Emanuele III, concerned for the monarchy’s survival, saw Mussolini’s removal as a chance to distance himself from a regime he had supported for two decades, and thereby safeguard his own position. The Allied landings on Sicily, known as Operation Husky (9–10 July 1943), accelerated these developments. The bombing of Rome on 19 July 1943 drove home the reality of Italy’s military inferiority even to senior political figures in the capital. On 25 July 1943, the Grand Council of Fascism voted in favour of Mussolini’s dismissal; on the king’s orders, he was arrested by the Carabinieri.

The conquest of Tunisia and finally the landing in Sicily and southern Italy led to heavier bombing of northern Italian cities. Railway stations such as this one in Bologna were particularly affected © US NARA, Signal Corps 207365 / Fot. Rusbar

The new government under Marshal Pietro Badoglio initially continued the war. This interim period, known as the ‘Forty-five Days’, was marked by contradictory actions. The government issued harsh threats against draft evaders and responded with violence to peace demonstrations, such as that in Reggio Emilia on 28 July 1943. At the same time, it entered into secret negotiations with the Allies to arrange an armistice. While these talks were ongoing, the Nazi regime began moving more Wehrmacht units into Italy, officially to strengthen joint defence against an expected Allied invasion. In reality, Berlin had long questioned Italy’s loyalty and was already preparing for the occupation of the peninsula. On 3 September 1943, the first Allied troops landed in Calabria; on 8 September, Badoglio publicly announced the armistice with the Allies, hoping they would quickly drive the Germans out of southern Europe.

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