Autumn and Winter 1944/45: Setbacks, Repression, and Realignment
Author: Milan Spindler
From autumn 1944 onwards, the Resistenza came increasingly under pressure. German offensives and systematic sweep operations cut off supply lines; many units suffered from shortages of ammunition and inadequate equipment. The destruction of key depots further exacerbated the situation. Heavy snowfall and extreme cold made winter conditions even more precarious, Allied airdrops were insufficient to remedy the shortfall. Both civilians and partisans suffered from hunger. At the same time, military effectiveness was hampered by the inexperience of many new recruits: numerous deserters and draft evaders who had joined the movement during the summer had little or no training.
This phase also saw a rise in internal tensions. Political differences between factions led to mutual recriminations after failed operations in late summer. Under pressure from repression and infiltration, many fighters deserted.
In October 1944, the RSI announced an amnesty for men who had evaded military or labour service, on the condition that they perform work for the Wehrmacht instead. Those who agreed to build trenches or fortifications along the Green Line were granted immunity from punishment. The aim of this measure was to bolster the RSI’s legitimacy, secure urgently needed manpower for defence, and encourage partisans to surrender. In some regions, this strategy proved effective: faced with overwhelming enemy strength, harsh living conditions, and the promise of amnesty, many fighters gave up, at least temporarily.
On 10 November 1944, the Allied High Command, under Generals Harold Alexander and Mark W. Clark, ordered a cessation of partisan operations over the winter, in order to prevent further losses. For the Resistenza, however, this meant the loss of numerous safe havens. The Comando Volontari della Libertà (CVL), the military arm of the CLN, attempted to shift partisan activity into the Po Valley. There, smaller units operated under extremely difficult conditions, intensifying their struggle against the RSI, particularly in urban centres.
By the end of the year, many partisan-held areas had been crushed by German and Fascist attacks. The ongoing repression placed severe strain on relations with the civilian population. The requisitioning of essential goods, sometimes through acts of theft, also led to tensions. Nevertheless, networks of solidarity, particularly among farming families and urban supporters, sustained the resistance. Many fighters had meanwhile withdrawn: either into the Po Valley, to already liberated areas of southern Italy, or to neighbouring southeastern France.